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Updated June 2010
Introduction
Available evidence indicates that Venezuela has shown little interest in procuring weapons of mass destruction (WMD). However, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez's technical alliances, military trade, and nuclear cooperation with Russia and Iran, among other countries, raise some proliferation concerns. Venezuela has almost no nuclear infrastructure, little nuclear expertise, and has joined the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Tlatelolco Treaty) and the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Venezuela has also ratified the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), and has adopted domestic legislation prohibiting the acquisition and development of biological and chemical weapons. The country has no ballistic missile program, and is not a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime.
Nuclear
As the world's fifth largest oil exporter and with abundant hydroelectric resources, Venezuela does not require nuclear power to meet its energy needs. Moreover, until recently, Venezuela has shown almost no sign of posing a nuclear proliferation threat as the country has only one nuclear facility and very minimal nuclear expertise. Venezuela is also a member of the core nuclear nonproliferation agreements.[2] The country became a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in August 1957, after purchasing a 3 megawatt research reactor from the U.S. General Electric Company in 1956. The reactor, which went critical in July 1960, was operated by the Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones (IVIC) under IAEA safeguards; it was officially shut down in January 1994.[3] Reportedly, the reactor site "is now used for food processing irradiation, medical sterilization and research."[4]
In February 1967, Venezuela signed the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean; it ratified the treaty three years later in March 1970. That treaty, which finally entered into force in October 2002, prohibits the acquisition, production, use, testing or possession of nuclear weapons in the region.[5] Venezuela joined the NPT in 1975, and negotiated an IAEA Safeguards Agreement covering its nuclear activities that entered into force in March 1982.[6]
In November 1983, Venezuela and Brazil signed an agreement that provided for cooperation in the research, design, development, and use of experimental and operational reactors; research on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy; and prospecting "for minerals with nuclear uses."[7] There is little public information, however, on any activity carried out under this agreement.
In 1998, Chávez, a former military officer, was elected president on a populist platform dubbed the "Bolivarian Revolution," which called for the country to use its oil revenues to support social welfare programs at home and to influence like-minded anti-U.S. leaders in the region and around the world.[8] Chávez's announcements since 2005 about building a nuclear power program and the nuclear cooperation alliances that he has sought may have more to do with his foreign policy goals and anti-U.S. stance than with any actual need or plans to develop nuclear power—or to acquire nuclear weapons. For example, in October 2005, during a summit meeting, Chávez announced unexpectedly that Venezuela might acquire as many as a dozen nuclear power reactors from Brazil and/or Argentina.[9] The announcement took Brazilian and Argentine nuclear officials by surprise, and was viewed by nuclear proliferation analysts as another way of challenging the U.S. administration, and a bid to attain the prestige that comes with having a nuclear reactor.[10] Both Brazilian and Argentine officials reacted warily to possible nuclear cooperation with Venezuela, and despite nuclear cooperation agreements with both countries, there is no public information indicating that Venezuela has received any nuclear technology or know-how from either country.[11]
Venezuela's ever-strengthening ties with Iran pose proliferation concerns. Venezuela, the fifth largest oil exporter, and Iran, the second largest, began to build stronger ties after Venezuela hosted the 2000 OPEC meeting in Caracas.[12] The relationship between the two countries intensified as Chávez became an outspoken supporter of Iran's nuclear program and critic of Western countries that have sought UN Security Council resolutions requiring Iran to stop uranium enrichment for power plant fuel and to disclose the full extent of its nuclear program and any nuclear weapons-related activities. In February 2006, when the IAEA Board of Governors voted to refer Iran to the UN Security Council for sanctions, only Venezuela, Cuba, and Syria opposed the decision.[13] At that time, the Iranian media hinted that Venezuela might receive Iranian nuclear technology, and Chávez's opponents suggested that Venezuela might export uranium in return.[14] In return for Venezuela's support at the IAEA and UN Security Council, Iran has entered into over 150 energy, development, commercial, and financial agreements with Venezuela and allegedly has invested billions of dollars in joint projects.[15]
The United States government has expressed great concern about Venezuela's cooperation with Iran, particularly in the nuclear area. In March 2008, Congressman Connie Mack (R-FL) reintroduced a bill (H.Res. 1049) calling for Venezuela to be designated as a state sponsor of terrorism.[16] The draft bill pointed to President Chávez's "strong relationship" with Iran as demonstrated by: Venezuela's "200 bilateral agreements with Iran"; Iran's reported offer to help Venezuela with a nuclear program; and Chávez's strong support for Iran's controversial nuclear program. The Venezuelan Embassy in the United States posted a point-by-point denial of the resolution's charges, and stated: "Venezuela and Iran also have discussed cooperation on nuclear energy, but we are not aware of any significant developments as a result of these discussions."[17]
Congress did not pass a resolution finding that Venezuela is a state sponsor of terrorism; however, in 2008, the U.S. government imposed sanctions on Venezuelan companies for the transfer of items and funds to Iran that could contribute to WMD proliferation and help Iran circumvent UN and U.S. sanctions.[18] In September 2009, Chávez announced that Venezuela had signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with Iran, under which Iran would help Venezuela construct a "nuclear villa" for peaceful purposes.[19] While Chávez emphasized that Iran and Venezuela have the right to develop nuclear energy, Western countries pointed out that any transfer of nuclear technology from Iran to Venezuela would violate UN Security Council sanctions on Iran, in particular UN Security Council Resolution 1737.[20] At the same time, Chávez and other government officials admitted that Iran had been helping Venezuela explore remote areas of the country for uranium deposits.[21] The announcements heightened concern that Venezuela has been aiding Iran in exchange for nuclear transfers that might help Venezuela in the acquisition or development of nuclear weapons.
On October 27, 2009, three House of Representative subcommittees held a joint hearing on Iran's activities in the Western Hemisphere and particularly Iran's growing political and economic ties with Venezuela. Many analysts who testified noted the Iran appeared to be using ties with Venezuela to lessen the effects of U.S. and UN sanctions and to spread its terrorist and other illicit activities, including possible nuclear cooperation.
Chávez has also cultivated ties with Russia that resulted in a nuclear cooperation agreement in November 2008. Following an aborted coup attempt in 2002, which Chávez blamed on the United States, and deteriorating relations with the United States, Chávez turned to Russia for military equipment as well as energy cooperation.[22] Since 2005 and despite U.S. sanctions on Russian companies transferring weapons to Venezuela, Chávez has spent $3-$4 billion on Russian arms, including 100,000 Kalashnikov AK-103 assault rifles (and a factory to build more in Venezuela), 24 Sukhoi fighter jets, and 53 combat helicopters.[23] In late November 2008 during Russian President Dmitry Medvedev's visit to Caracas, Venezuelan Minister of Energy and Petroleum Rafael Dario Ramirez Carreno and Rosatom head Sergei Kiriyenko signed a long anticipated general agreement on nuclear cooperation.
The agreement established a framework for:
- joint research into controlled nuclear fusion;
- design, development, manufacture, and use of research reactors and nuclear power plants;
- production of radioisotopes for use in industry, medicine, and agriculture;
- help for Venezuela in the development of the infrastructure and legislative framework for peaceful use of nuclear energy; and
- possible exploration and development of Venezuela's uranium and thorium deposits.[24]
The agreement reportedly specifies that that any nuclear equipment and know-how supplied by Russia will not be used by Venezuela "to produce nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices, nor to achieve any military objectives, and will be under the guarantees of the IAEA." According to a Rosatom press release, the agreement will not involve the transfer of "any know-how or systems for chemical reprocessing of irradiated fuel, isotope enrichment of uranium or production of heavy water, its main components or any objects produced from them, nor uranium enriched to 20 per cent or above."[25] Following the signing, Rosatom head Kiriyenko stated that the deal should not raise proliferation concerns because Venezuela is an IAEA member and has signed nuclear nonproliferation documents.[26] While Venezuela is an NPT member and has signed an IAEA Safeguards Agreement, Chávez has refused to sign the Additional Protocol, which would give the agency broader inspection powers.
In April 2010, during a one-day visit by Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to Caracas, Chávez announced that the two countries were "ready to start drawing up the first plan of a nuclear power plant...."[27] However, the leaders focused on Russia's participation in a $20 billion oil venture with Venezuela, and no one provided further details about nuclear cooperation under the agreement signed in 2008. While Chávez has touted the agreement with Russia and Venezuela's peaceful nuclear goals, Venezuela's nuclear projects have not progressed beyond the planning stages, and many analysts doubt that the country will manage to find the funds and expertise to support a nuclear power program.[28] Still, given Venezuela's close ties with Iran and willingness to defy UN and U.S. sanctions, Venezuela's nuclear ambitions do raise some proliferation concerns.
In October 2009, U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents seized six computers and other files and evidence from the home of a Los Alamos, New Mexico physicist who allegedly provided nuclear weapons information to a Venezuelan government representative.[28] Dr. P. Leonardo Mascheroni had been laid off from Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1988, and in subsequent years had tried to interest the U.S. and other governments in his laser fusion project. Following the FBI raid, Mascheroni claimed that in 2008 he was contacted by a man from the Venezuelan embassy in Washington who asked him to produce a study on how Venezuela might develop a nuclear weapons program. Mascheroni was given $20,000 and promised another $800,000. Interviewed by an Associated Press reporter in October 2009, Mascheroni stated that he provided only unclassified materials to his Venezuelan contact, and that he had hoped to demonstrate to Venezuelan President Chávez that a nuclear weapons program would be too expensive and impractical.[30] No charges have been filed against Mascheroni. During a televised speech, Chávez asserted that the FBI investigation of Mascheroni was an attempt by the U.S. government to suggest that Venezuela wants nuclear weapons.[31]
Biological
There are no indications that Venezuela has developed or is developing biological weapons. Venezuela ratified the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) on 18 October 1978. According to its United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1540 reports, it has adopted legislation prohibiting the acquisition, manufacturing, and development of chemical and biological weapons.[32] While Venezuela denies any interest in acquiring biological weapons, it does have close ties with two countries, Iran and Cuba, which have extensive biotechnology capabilities and have been suspected of pursuing biological warfare programs. Venezuela has signed numerous technology development agreements with Iran and a Memorandum of Understanding "pledging full military support and cooperation."[33] Venezuela also has a technology trade agreement with Cuba, and in the past, Venezuela has received pharmaceutical products from Cuba as a payment of debt.
In an October 2009 UN General Assembly meeting, a representative for Venezuela, Liseth Ancidey, indicated that global biological weapons elimination is a priority for the country. Ancidey noted that Venezuela supported a program for the "full implementation" of the BTWC, and further, that "it was holding consultations to establish a national body for its implementation and had drafted a code of bio-security to govern the conduct of scientists and researchers working in that field."[34]
Chemical
Venezuela ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) on 3 December 1997. In its second Note to the Security Council regarding UNSCR 1540, Venezuela declared it had established a National Authority "for the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons."[35] In its two other submissions to the Security Council, the Venezuelan government enumerated the various laws it has enacted to prohibit chemical weapons.[36]
In an October 20 UN General Assembly meeting, Venezuela's representative Ancidey, "reaffirmed" the importance of eliminating chemical weapons. In reference to the CWC, she said that Venezuela "supported full transparency in the implementation of the Convention, as well as its universality." She also noted the concern of her country that states possessing such weapons might not eliminate them by the agreed upon 2012 deadline.[37]
Missile
Venezuela does not have a long-range missile program, and it is not a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime. However, it is planning to import Russian missile defense systems and it has been accused of aiding Iran's missile program.
In September 2009, Chávez stated that Venezuela would use a $2.2 billion loan from Russia to buy Russian military technology including a variety of air defense systems. The multi-layered air defense system could "include short-range Pechora, medium-range Buk-M2, and possibly the long-range S-300 surface-to-air missile system."[38] Chávez claims that defenses are necessary because of an increased U.S. presence in neighboring Columbia.
The United States has sanctioned Venezuelan companies for providing aid to Iran that could benefit that country's missile program. In August 2008, the U.S. Department of State under the Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act imposed sanctions on the Venezuelan Military Industries Companies (CAVIM) for the transfer of items either barred by multilateral export control lists or otherwise "having the potential to make a material contribution to the development of weapons of mass destruction of cruise or ballistic missile systems."[39] Two months later, the U.S. Treasury Department designated the Export Development Bank of Iran (EDBI) as providing financial services to Iran's Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics that allow this entity to develop Tehran's alleged WMD programs. The Treasury Department also designated Banco Internacional de Desarollo, C.A., a financial institution in Venezuela, as a business controlled by or acting on behalf of EDBI.[40]
The United States is concerned that Venezuela is helping Iran circumvent UN and U.S. sanctions designed to prevent Iran and Syria from developing WMD and ballistic missile programs. In December 2008, media reports stated that an Iranian firm, Shahid Bagheri, under UN sanctions for furthering Iran's ballistic missile program, had "used the Venezuelan airline Conviasa to ship computers and missile engines" to Syria in exchange for elite Iranian military forces providing law enforcement and intelligence training to Venezuelan troops.[41]
Sources:
[1] For a history of Venezuela's nuclear ambitions, see Sarah J. Diehl, "Venezuela's
Search for Nuclear Power — or Nuclear Prestige," NTI Issue Brief, 7 May
2009, Issue Brief: Venezuela's Search for Nuclear Power - or Nuclear Prestige.
[2] Nina Gerami, Sharon Squassoni, "Venezuela: A Nuclear Profile," Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, Proliferation Analysis, 18 December 2008,
www.carnegieendowment.org.
[3] "Reactor Details —RV-1, Venezuelan Reactor," International Atomic Energy
Agency," last updated 30 June 1995, www.iaea.org; Gerami, Squassoni, "Venezuela:
A Nuclear Profile." On safeguards agreements, see "Table II: Agreements
Providing for Safeguards, Other than Those in Connection with the NPT or the
Treaty of Tlatelolco, Approved by the Board of Governors as of 31 December
2001," IAEA Annual Report 2001, www.iaea.org.
[4] Patrick Markey, "Venezuela's Nuclear Energy Plan Makes US Wary," RedOrbit News, 21 October 2005, www.redorbit.com.
[5] James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Treaty for the Prohibition of
Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco),
Inventory of International Nonproliferation Organizations and Regimes,
Nuclear Threat Initiative Website.
[6] James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, IAEA Membership, Inventory
of International Nonproliferation Organizations and Regimes, Nuclear Threat
Initiative Web site.
[7] "Brazil and Venezuela Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Nuclear Energy
for Peaceful Purposes," 30 November 1983, UN Treaty Collection, untreaty.un.org.
(Registered January 1992).
[8] "An Axis in Need of Oiling," The Economist, 23 October 2008,
Economist.com; Simon Romero, Michael Slackman and Clifford J. Levy, "3 Oil-rich
Countries Face a Reckoning," New York Times, 21 October 2008.
[9] "Brazil Daily Assesses Nuclear Agreement with Argentina, Venezuela," O Estado
de Sao Paulo, 18 October 2005, OSC Document LAP20051018032001; Larry Rohter
and Juan Forero, "Venezuela's Leader Covets a Nuclear Energy Program," The
New York Times, 27 November 2005.
[10] Rohter and Forero, "Venezuela's Leader Covets a Nuclear Energy Program."
[11] Harold A. Trinkunas, "Assessing Potential Nuclear Proliferation Networks in
Latin America: 2006-2016," Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 13, No. 3,
November 2006. In February 2007, Argentina and Venezuela reportedly signed a
letter of intent on peaceful nuclear cooperation, which included developing and
building a reactor to extract crude oil in Orinoco, exchanging information on
the medical uses of nuclear energy, and training Venezuelan students in nuclear
physics and engineering.
[12] Alberto Garrido, "Venezuela: Analyst Examines Iran-Venezuela Links in Energy,
Military Areas," El Universal, 24 April 2006, OSC document LAP20060424062008.
[13] Elaine Sciolino, "World Nuclear Panel to Refer Iran to U.N. Security Council,"
The New York Times, 4 February 2006.
[14] Simon Romero, "Venezuela Strengthens Its Relationships in the Middle East,"
The New York Times, 21 August 2006; Andy Webb-Vidal, "Oiling the Axis
— Ties Between Iran and Venezuela," Jane's Intelligence Review, 1 August 2007.
[15] Romero, "Venezuela Strengthens Its Relationships in the Middle East";
"Venezuela, Iran Sign 20 New Bilateral Cooperation Agreements," Agencia
Bolivariana de Noticias, 7 March 2007; "Friends of Opportunity," The
Economist, 27 November 2008.
[16] "H. Res. 1049: Calling for the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to Be Designated
a State Sponsor of Terrorism," Introduced 13 March 2008, www.govtrack.us.
[17] "Resolution & Reality: H.Res. 1049," Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela in the United States of America," www.embavenez-us.org, accessed 4 December 2008.
[18] See, Department of State, "Bureau of Verification, Compliance and
Implementation: Imposition of Measures Against Foreign Persons, Including a Ban
on U.S. Government Procurement," Federal Register, Vol. 73, No. 206, pp.
63226-63227, edocket.access.gpo.gov; and "Export Development Bank of Iran
Designated as a Proliferator," Press Room of the U.S. Department of the
Treasury, 22 October 2008, www.treas.gov.
[19] "Venezuela Announced Nuclear Energy Cooperation Program with Iran," Merco Press,
11 September 2009; Simon Romero, "Venezuela Says Iran is Helping It Look for
Uranium," New York Times, 26 September 2009.
[20] "France Cautions Venezuela on 'Nuclear Links' with Iran," MercoPress, 12
September 2009; Romero, "Venezuela Says Iran is Helping It Look for Uranium."
[21] Romero, "Venezuela Says Iran is Helping It Look for Uranium"; Eduardo Garcia,
"Chávez Says Iran Helping Venezuela Find Uranium," Reuters, 17 October 2009.
[22] Vladimir Voronin, "Venezuela's Weapons Acquisition from Russia Analyzed,"
Novoye Vremya, 2 July 2007, OSC document CEP20070709358002.
[23] Ibid.; Anastasia Moloney, "Concern Over Venezuela's Russian Arms Purchases Could
Be Misplaced," World Politics Review, 29 October 2008,
www.worldpoliticsreview.com; "Putin, Chávez Discuss Nuclear, Military
Cooperation," Novosti, 26 September 2008, en.rian.ru.
[24] "Russian State Corporation Gives Details of Nuclear Deal with Venezuela,"
Interfax, 27 November 2008, OSC document CEP20081127950373. See also, Caracas
Ministry of Communications and Information, "Venezuela, Russia Ink Seven
Cooperation Agreements," 27 November 2008, OSC document LAP20081128071003.
[25] "Russian State Corporation Gives Details of Nuclear Deal with Venezuela."
[26] Artur Blinov, "Russia's Nuclear Cooperation with Iran, Venezuela, Examined,"
Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 28 November 2008, OSC document CEP20081128025005.
[27] "Russia and Venezuela Announce Nuclear Union," Telegraph.co.uk, 3 April 2010,
www.telegraph.co.uk; "Putin Bolsters Oil, Defense Nuclear Ties with Venezuela," The Daily Herald,
3 April 2010, www.thedailyherald.com.
[28] Ian James, "Venezuela's Chavez Aims to Tap Nuclear Energy," Associated Press, 16
September 2009; Diehl, "Venezuela's Search for Nuclear Power — or Nuclear
Prestige."
[29] William J. Broad, "Property of Nuclear Critic Is Seized by Federal Agents," New York Times, 21 October 2009; Heather Clark, Associated Press, "Ex-Los Alamos Lab Physicist Describes Meetings," Marinij.com, 22 October 2009.
[30] Clark, Associated Press, "Ex-Los Alamos Lab Physicist Describes Meetings."
[31] "Venezuela Criticizes U.S. Probe of Former Los Alamos Scientist," VOA News, 22 October 2009.
[32] United Nations Security Council, "Note verbale dated 5 December 2005 from the
Permanent Mission of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to the United Nations
addressed to the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution
1540 (2004)," 7 December 2005, daccessdds.un.org.
[33] United Nations Security Council, "Note verbale dated 16 November 2004 from the
Permanent Mission of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to the United Nations
addressed to the Chairman of the Committee," 14 December 2004,
daccessdds.un.org.
[34] UN General Assembly, "Chemical Weapons Ban Took a Century to Enact, but 'Living
Example' of Success in Field, First Committee Told, Taking up Weapons of Mass
Destruction Debate," 16 October 2009, www.interpol.int.
[35] United Nations Security Council, "Note verbale dated 7 November 2005 from the
Permanent Mission of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to the United Nations
addressed to the Chairman of the Committee," 9 November 2005, daccessdds.un.org.
[36] "Note verbale dated 5 December 2005" and "Note verbale dated 16 November 2004."
[37] UN General Assembly, "Chemical Weapons Ban Took a Century to Enact, but 'Living
Example' of Success in Field, First Committee Told, Taking up Weapons of Mass
Destruction Debate."
[38] Richard Weitz, "Global Insights: Chavez Trades Oil for Arms in Moscow," World
Politics Review, 15 September 2009; "Venezuela to Build Strong Air Defenses
with Russian Aid," RIA Novosti, 14 September 2009, en.rian.
[39] Department of State, "Bureau of Verification, Compliance and Implementation:
Imposition of Measures Against Foreign Persons, Including a Ban on U.S.
Government Procurement," Federal Register, Vol. 73, No. 206, pp.
63226-63227, edocket.access.gpo.gov.
[40] "Export Development Bank of Iran Designated as a Proliferator," Press Room of
the U.S. Department of the Treasury, 22 October 2008,www.treas.gov.
[41] "Venezuela Aids Iranian Missile Sales to Syria, Intelligence Agencies Say,"
Global Security Newswire, 22 December 2008; "Iran Using Venezuela to Duck UN
Sanctions: Report," AFP, 22 December 2008.
This material is produced independently for NTI by the James Martin Center for
Nonproliferation Studies at the Monterey Institute of International Studies and
does not necessarily reflect the opinions of and has not been independently
verified by NTI or its directors, officers, employees, agents. Copyright © 2010 by MIIS.
